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History and Evolution:
By William E. Steinman:
Part 27, The Roman Republic:
September 29, 2003:
While the civilization of Greece was growing and flowering the rest of the world was not dormant by any means. In fact, a major historical development was making its feeble beginnings on the Italian peninsula. Just a few years after the first Olympics games we believe the city of Rome was founded. The date given is 753 BC. To be sure, there is some supposition involved here as to the actual dates. The evidence of these early times is too thin to stand up in any court of law.
Rome was situated in an ideal location on the Tiber River about 12 miles from the Tyrrhenian Sea where it commanded a convenient river crossing. It also lay astride the land route from the mountains to the sea. This put it at the crossroad or meeting point of three different peoples. These were Latins, Etruscans, and Sabines. Thus, from the beginning Rome can be seen as a melting pot of different cultures. The Romans seem to have had a genius for adopting the best of each of these.
For example we owe our alphabet to Rome, and Rome borrowed it from the Etruscans. Another gift from Rome to Western civilization is our 12 month calendar. As to language, all of the romantic languages such as Spanish and Italian evolve from Latin which, of course, originated with the Latins. Although cement was likely invented by the Greeks, the Romans refined the process and applied it in most of their engineering including road building. Looking at the ancient diagrams, we find that the Western world has not improved much on road building since then.
The founding of the city in 753 BC marked the regal period of Rome which ended in 509 BC when the Republic of Rome was established. There is not much in the way of records for this regal period. Much that we have has probably been too much enhanced by Roman patriots to be of real value. Even the time from 509 to 264 BC is poorly documented. Historians call this time from 509 BC to about 264 BC the early Roman Republic.
It seems that Rome was ruled by seven successive kings from 753 BC until the early Roman Republic was established. Historians disagree on the first king because of the conflicting mythologies of that period. It is not clear, by any means, as to how many kings there were. The last six can be authenticated to a reasonable degree although details of their reigns are somewhat cloudy. The last king was Tarquinius Superbus who was defeated by the Etruscan king, Porsenna, and expelled from Rome.
The best guess is that Porsenna suffered a military defeat of his own before he could consolidate his conquest of Rome. The Romans then substituted two magistrates for the kingship. These were called consuls and were reelected on a yearly basis. Thus began the early Roman Republic. This era was marked by the growth of Rome and much internal political struggle. Some of this was between what were called patricians and plebeians. In short, old Roman families and new Roman families. Other political strife came from disparities in laws and the like.
Since Rome was an imperialistic state, the most important duties of the consuls was as generals of the army. In fact, they were elected by an assembly of soldiers. This decision to have the army elect its leadership was a major factor in Rome's subsequent growth. For other business, there was the Senate consisting of the elders of the leading families of Rome. In theory the senate sat in an advisory capacity rather than a legal one. However their advice was usually converted into law by the assembly. The assembly was kind of like a hierarchical democracy, but only adult male Romans could vote in this.
As always occurs, there were excesses of leadership and struggles because of it. Out of this struggle the plebeians got their own representation. They also managed to get the Roman law codified and inscribed on 12 bronze tablets. These inscribed tablets were displayed in the forum and became the basis of all Roman private law. How these things really came about is open to much question. Much of the mythology surrounding these events is very similar to myths from earlier Greek traditions.
During all of this time, Rome was almost constantly at war. At first it was against outside invaders to protect the Latin League. This League was a loose confederation of Latin states on the Italian peninsula. Later Rome began to expand its own territory into other states. There were many wars with victories and defeats in this expansion, but by 272 BC, Rome had subdued all of Italy.
The consolidation of Italy marked the beginnings of what historians call the Middle Republic from about 264 until 133 BC. 264 BC was also the beginning of what is called the first Punic war between Rome and Carthage. As always Rome was in an imperialistic expansion mode. This war ended in 241 BC after a huge naval victory by Rome against the Carthaginian fleet. Carthage accepted peace and ceded Sicily and the Lipari Islands to Rome.
Ignoring treaties Rome continued to expand around the Mediterranean forcing war upon Carthage. The second Punic war ensued in which Hannibal crossed the Alps with his elephants and his army to Invade the Italian peninsula. He gave Rome a great deal of trouble. This was a long bitter struggle and a massive drain on the resources of Rome but she did prevail. The war ended in 203 BC when Hannibal was called back to Africa and the remaining Carthaginian forces withdrew from Italy. In the peace accord following, Rome secured Spain, and all of the Mediterranean islands held by Carthage. In addition, Rome took over the entire Carthaginian fleet and extracted a huge indemnity from Carthage.
Rome was also engaged in four wars, called the Macedonian wars against the kingdom of Macedonia. The first of these began during the conflicts with Carthage. Rome's victory in the fourth war resulted in Macedonia becoming a Roman Provence. This annexation marked the beginning of what is called the Late Republic. It was in these wars that Greece became a protectorate of Rome.
Rome continued to expand in all directions. Territory after
territory were annexed as Rome's power grew. By 133 BC Rome was
the dominant power around the Mediterranean, as far east as Mesopotamia
and throughout southern Europe. After this enormous expansion
Rome and its citizenry were exhausted. Internal unrest and bickering
caused what prolonged war could never have done. Rome saw the
inevitable decline and final collapse of the republic. Out of
that collapse came the Roman Empire.
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