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History and Evolution:
By William E. Steinman:
Part 121, John Locke Part One:
July 18, 2005:
Another philosopher of the 17th century was John Locke (1632-1704).
Locke was a contemporary of Hobbes who also studied and wrote
about the political situation as he saw it. he wrote one important
religious treatment called "A Letter Concerning Toleration."
His major political works were "Two Treatises of Government"
first published in 1690. An empiricist, Locke also wrote a major
treatment of the concepts involved in empiricism called "An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding." This was published
in 1689.
Empiricism is a philosophical doctrine holding that all knowledge is derived from experience. It could be experience of the mind or of the senses, but experience is the source of knowledge. This puts it in direct opposition to rationalism which presupposed the existence of innate ideas. The big thing about empiricism is its is associated with the rise of experimental science, hence the development of Western civilization.
Locke was not the first to address these issues. We can find empiricist ideas way back in the work of the early Greek Sophists, who first rejected Rationalist speculation. Locke, however, made a powerful case for empiricism at a time that was ripe for it due to the previous activities of the Renaissance men. We can say with confidence that John Locke was a key figure in the first days of the enlightenment in England.
Locke was born in Pensford near Bristol. His pop was an attorney, but not a big shot in government. He had a country practice. John went to Westminster school and later Oxford. There he took the classic Scholastic curriculum which included rhetoric, grammar, moral philosophy, geometry, and Greek. It seems he found it boring and filled out his time with studies in experimental science and medicine. After getting his BA, he became a tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. This was in 1660 and the monarchy had just been restored.
Financially, Locke was not bad off. An inheritance from his father gave him a steady if modest income. He could have become a professional teacher, but he declined to take the requisite holy orders. So, after teaching for four years he made a trip to Brandenburg on a mission of diplomacy. It seems he could have continued in that too, but he was more interested in the study of science and the study of the principles of morality in social and political situations. At that time, experimental science was still his main focus. He was associated with Boyle and others at Oxford including Thomas Sydenham.
Sydenham was good company for any thoughtful man. He was an eminent physician who was recognized as a founder of clinical medicine and epidemiology. He emphasized detailed observations of patients and maintained accurate records, which earned him the title of "the English Hippocrates." He was among the first to describe scarlet fever. Until then it was not differentiated from measles. Sydenham isolated the disease and named it. He also explain the nature of hysteria and St. Vitus' dance (Sydenham's chorea). Some of his other achievements were the introduced of laudanum into medicine, the use iron in treating iron-deficiency anemia, and championing quinine in treating malaria.
Now, it came to pass, when Lord Ashley visited Oxford in 1666, needing some medical attention, he became acquainted with Locke. That was the beginning of a lasting friendship. We must understand that Locke was not a physician and seemed to have no desire to become one. Nevertheless, he went to London as Ashley's personal physician. Friendship indeed! In fact, Locke was Ashley's advisor in much more than his medical needs.
At this time, both Ashley and Locke were in support of a constitutional monarchy. They were also supporters of Protestant succession, civil liberties, tolerance in religion, Parliamentary rule, and economic expansion. Not everyone was with them in these matters and Ashley had more than a few enemies. He was quite outspoken about his views. Working for Ashley, Locke got into a lot of political situations. For example, he did work on the constitution of the new colony of South Carolina.
Around 1668, Locke became a fellow in the new Royal Society of London, so he was on top of all the important scientific developments of his day. Other folks also influenced Locke's thinking at this time including the Cambridge Platonists, a school of Christian humanists. He did not go whole hog with these people, but he did admire their tolerance and their embracing of good behavior as part of the religious discipline. There were also other meetings of the super minds of the time taking place in Locke's own rooms. It was in this setting that he developed his more liberal ideas and formulated the beginnings of what was to become his "Essay Concerning Human Understanding."
When Ashley became the First earl of Shaftesbury in 1672 and later rose to lord high chancellor of England, Locke seemed to be in sweet clover. He ended up as the secretary of the Council of Trade. That did not last long because the outspoken Ashley quickly fell from grace. So, Locke, who was struggling with asthma anyway, left the London limelight and returned to Oxford. That was in 1675.
He did not linger long. A few months later he was off to France where he favored Paris and Montpellier. In France he encountered François Bernier the leader of the Gassendist school of Epicureanism. This Gassendist school was the result of the thinking of the French Philosopher Pierre Gassendi. He rejected some of the thinking of Descartes's philosophy and advocated a return to empiricism. With its emphasis on the experience of the senses, hedonism, and the theory of corpuscular physics. Gassendi's philosophy was well aligned with Locke's own ideas. He stayed and learned from these folks until 1679 when he returned to England.
Locke came home to a very unsettled political scene. Charles II was getting on in years and James II was looking to succeed him. Shaftesbury was dead set against that succession of course because James was a Catholic. Heaven forbid! Well, Charles had to put Shaftesbury in the good old Tower of London on a charge of treason for leading the opposition to James. However, he was acquitted and actually got back in favor by the time Locke showed up. In fact, he was lord president of the Privy Council. He was again dismissed in 1681. Again he was arrested and tried, but he was acquitted by a London jury. That was enough for Shaftesbury. He took of for Holland while he still had his head on.
At this time, Locke saw the handwriting on-the-wall so-to-speak.
He knew, as a friend of Ashley, he was on James' hit list and
he decided Holland would be a nice place to visit. He took off
in 1683. The dreaded James II was about to come to power. We can
pick up on Locke's further adventures and philosophy in my next
essay.
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